The earliest of empires showed up during the era of the First Civilizations when Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires encompassed the city-states of Mesopotamia and then established imperial tradition in the Middle East. As for Egypt, it became an imperial state when it temporarily ruled Nubia and the lands of the eastern Mediterranean.
Empires: states, political systems that exercise coercive power. Reserved for more larger and aggressive states that conquer, rule, and extract resources from other states and peoples. Empires have encompassed a variety of peoples and cultures within a single political system; and have been associated with political or cultural oppression.
Eurasian empires (second-wave era)
Persia, Greece under Alexander the Great, China during the Qin and Han dynasties, India during the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties all shared common problems - imposing culture of imperial heartland, ruling conquered people directly or established local authorities, extracting wealth of empire through taxes, tribute, and labor while maintaining order, etc.
Why the fascination with empires?
They were big, creating a looming presence over their regions. They were also bloody and important.
In the era between 500 B.C.E. and 500 C.E., the second-wave civilizations flourished in the Mediterranean world, Middle East, India, and China.
Persians and Greeks
- Both these civilizations, physically adjacent to each other, has a century-long interaction and clash; it was one of the most consequential encounters of the ancient world.
*The Persian empire was the largest and most impressive empires in 500 B.C.E. Persians were an Indo-European people whose homeland lay on the Iranian plateau. The Persians, under the Achaemenid dynasty (553-330 B.C.E.), constructed an imperial system that drew on previous examples such as the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. Under the leadership of Cyrus (557-530 B.C.E) and Darius (522-486 B.C.E.), Persian conquests reached from Egypt to India - intertwining 35-50 million people - which in turn created an immensely diverse group (peoples, states, languages, and cultural traditions).
- Persian empire centered on cult of kinship . Ruling by the will of the great Persian god Ahura Mazda, kings were absolute monarchs who deserved their title in the eyes of many - "Great king, King of kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide").
-Persian empire also had an effective imperial system: Persian governors (satraps), imperial spies ("eyes and ears of the King").
-Because of their imperial bureaucracy and court life filled with administrators, tax collectors, record keepers, and translators, the Persian empire became a model for the other subsequent regimes in the region. They also had a system of standardized coinage.
*The Greeks were also an Indo-European people. The Greeks, who called themselves Hellenes, created a civilization that was distinctive. The total population of Greece and the Aegean basin was 2-3 million. Their civilization took place in steep mountains and valleys. They were developed in hundreds of city-states or small settlements; and most were modest in size and consisted of 500-5000 male citizens.
-Each of the city-states were fiercely independent. and had conflict with neighbors. But, they spoke the same language and worshiped the same gods. All of them stopped their conflicts every 4 years for the Olympic Games which began in 776 B.C.E.
-The Greeks were also an expansive people.
-Their most distinctive feature was the idea of "citizenship." Free people managing the affairs of state, equality of all citizens before the law was very unique.
*The Greco-Persian Wars
-Persia tried to conquer parts of Greece; but Greece fought back. Surprised by this act of rebellion, Persia tried to punish Greece with major military expeditions; but luckily enough, the Greeks held them off on both land and sea. Beating the Persians in battle was a huge source of pride for Greece. The victory also radicalized Athenian democracy.
The second-wave empires proved legitimacy for contemporary states, inspiration for new imperial ventures, and abundant warnings and cautions for those looking to criticize more recent empires.
Sunday, September 25, 2016
Saturday, September 17, 2016
Ch. 2 Documents - Introductory Question Response
The Epic of Gilgamesh
How does the Epic of Gilgamesh portray the gods and their relationship to humankind?
The Epic of Gilgamesh presents how the Mesopotamian gods agreed to exterminate mankind because they were growing in population and becoming more wild and intolerable. It describes how the lord of the Storm, Adad, turned daylight into darkness where he smashed the land of Shurrupak. He flooded the entire the land; and caused so much chaos and despair, that even the other gods felt fear and fled to the highest heavens. The Queen of Heaven mourned for the people even tough she commanded evil upon them. As the people float in the ocean like dead fish, the gods of heaven and hell wept. This shows just how much power the gods have over humankind. If the gods feel that the people serve no purpose to the world anymore, they obliterate them.
How does the Epic of Gilgamesh portray the gods and their relationship to humankind?
The Epic of Gilgamesh presents how the Mesopotamian gods agreed to exterminate mankind because they were growing in population and becoming more wild and intolerable. It describes how the lord of the Storm, Adad, turned daylight into darkness where he smashed the land of Shurrupak. He flooded the entire the land; and caused so much chaos and despair, that even the other gods felt fear and fled to the highest heavens. The Queen of Heaven mourned for the people even tough she commanded evil upon them. As the people float in the ocean like dead fish, the gods of heaven and hell wept. This shows just how much power the gods have over humankind. If the gods feel that the people serve no purpose to the world anymore, they obliterate them.
Tuesday, September 13, 2016
Ch. 2 First Civilizations (Cities, States, and Unequal Societies)
The First Civilizations
The earliest of civilizations emerged around 3500 B.C.E. to 3000 B.C.E. in three places. One was the "cradle" of Middle Eastern civilization, expressed in the city-states of Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Sumerian civilization likely were likely the ones who gave rise to the world's earliest written language. Then, around the same time, the Egyptian civilization emerged in the Nile River valley. The third civilization developed along the central coast of Peru from roughly 3000 B.C.E. to 1800 B.C.E. This area received little rainfall; but it had dozens or rivers which helped. Furthermore, a number of First Civilizations continued to develop in the Indus, in China, and central Asia later on.
The Erosion of Equality
Inequality and hierarchy came to play after the First Civilizations took place. The upper class had great wealth in land and salaries, didn't engage in physical labor, had the best quality of everything, and took positions in political, military, and religious life, The clothes they wore were also different as well as the houses they live in; and even their manner in burials. As for the free commoners, they represented the vast majority of the population. They were artisans, lower-level officials, soldiers, servants, and farmers. The farmers' surplus production supported the upper class through taxes, required labor, and tribute payments. And at the bottom of social hierarchies were slaves. Female slaves were captured in many wars among the Mesopotamian cities and were put to work in semi-industrial weaving enterprises. The males were placed to maintain irrigation canals and construct ziggurats.
Hierarchies of Gender
Men were regarded as superior to women and they could prefer sons over daughters. Men had roles as rulers, warriors, scholars, and heads of households. As for the women, their roles both productive and reproductive, took place in the household. It developed further when women took their role in nature relating to reproduction. Gathering and hunting societies developed gender systems without restrictions and inequalities that characterized the civilizations. The patriarchal societies likely developed from private property and commerce. And the buying and selling associated with the commerce also aided in men applying rights over women, as slaves, concubines, and wives.
The Rise of the State
Early states were headed mostly by kings who had a variety of officials who extended control over society and defended the states against external enemies. Someone had to organize the irrigation systems of river valley civilizations, direct efforts to defend the city or its territory against aggressive outsiders, and adjudicate conflicts among the many different peoples. The First Civilizations generated ideas that state authority, class, and and gender inequalities were normal, natural, and ordained by the gods. Kingship everywhere related to the sacred.
Cities and States
Mesopotamia and Egypt civilizations differed quite greatly. Mesopotamian civilization was organized in a dozen or more separate and independent city-states. Each city was ruled by a king. With Egypt, it maintained their unity and independence in their states and chiefdoms. The focus of the Egyptian state resided in the pharaoh - a god in human form. The pharaoh was believed to ensure the daily rising of the sun and the annual flooding of the Nile.
"Civilization"
Civilization - The idea that civilizations can represent distinct and widely shared identities with clear boundaries that mark them off from other units creates solidity. Despite the many issues and obstacles the city-states face, they certainly did grow and evolve as societies.
The earliest of civilizations emerged around 3500 B.C.E. to 3000 B.C.E. in three places. One was the "cradle" of Middle Eastern civilization, expressed in the city-states of Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Sumerian civilization likely were likely the ones who gave rise to the world's earliest written language. Then, around the same time, the Egyptian civilization emerged in the Nile River valley. The third civilization developed along the central coast of Peru from roughly 3000 B.C.E. to 1800 B.C.E. This area received little rainfall; but it had dozens or rivers which helped. Furthermore, a number of First Civilizations continued to develop in the Indus, in China, and central Asia later on.
The Erosion of Equality
Inequality and hierarchy came to play after the First Civilizations took place. The upper class had great wealth in land and salaries, didn't engage in physical labor, had the best quality of everything, and took positions in political, military, and religious life, The clothes they wore were also different as well as the houses they live in; and even their manner in burials. As for the free commoners, they represented the vast majority of the population. They were artisans, lower-level officials, soldiers, servants, and farmers. The farmers' surplus production supported the upper class through taxes, required labor, and tribute payments. And at the bottom of social hierarchies were slaves. Female slaves were captured in many wars among the Mesopotamian cities and were put to work in semi-industrial weaving enterprises. The males were placed to maintain irrigation canals and construct ziggurats.
Hierarchies of Gender
Men were regarded as superior to women and they could prefer sons over daughters. Men had roles as rulers, warriors, scholars, and heads of households. As for the women, their roles both productive and reproductive, took place in the household. It developed further when women took their role in nature relating to reproduction. Gathering and hunting societies developed gender systems without restrictions and inequalities that characterized the civilizations. The patriarchal societies likely developed from private property and commerce. And the buying and selling associated with the commerce also aided in men applying rights over women, as slaves, concubines, and wives.
The Rise of the State
Early states were headed mostly by kings who had a variety of officials who extended control over society and defended the states against external enemies. Someone had to organize the irrigation systems of river valley civilizations, direct efforts to defend the city or its territory against aggressive outsiders, and adjudicate conflicts among the many different peoples. The First Civilizations generated ideas that state authority, class, and and gender inequalities were normal, natural, and ordained by the gods. Kingship everywhere related to the sacred.
Cities and States
Mesopotamia and Egypt civilizations differed quite greatly. Mesopotamian civilization was organized in a dozen or more separate and independent city-states. Each city was ruled by a king. With Egypt, it maintained their unity and independence in their states and chiefdoms. The focus of the Egyptian state resided in the pharaoh - a god in human form. The pharaoh was believed to ensure the daily rising of the sun and the annual flooding of the Nile.
"Civilization"
Civilization - The idea that civilizations can represent distinct and widely shared identities with clear boundaries that mark them off from other units creates solidity. Despite the many issues and obstacles the city-states face, they certainly did grow and evolve as societies.
Tuesday, September 6, 2016
Ch.1 Agriculture & Nissa's Story
Starting around 12,000 years ago, agriculture (New Stone Age) began to unfold. The arrival of agriculture represented a genuinely revolutionary transformation of human life across the planet and provided the foundation of almost everything that came after: growing populations, settled villages, animal-borne diseases, horse-drawn chariot warfare, cities, states, empires, civilizations, writing, literature, etc. For example, farmers in the Americas transformed corn from a plant with a cob of an inch or so to one measuring about 6 inches by 1500. Farmers everywhere marked the landscape with a human imprint in the form of fields with boundaries, terraced hillsides, irrigation ditches, and canals. Animals were also transformed. But, people in the agricultural era lost the skills of their gathering and hunting ancestors in the event were there were too many people who lived that way. Farmers and herders became dependent on their domesticated plants and animals.
The Agricultural Revolution intertwined with the end of the last Ice Age which ended 11,000 years ago. The Ice Age led to the migration of Homo sapiens across the planets who then created new conditions that made agriculture grow. Gathering and hunting peoples in various resource-rich areas were able to settle down and establish their permanent villages. They didn't move from place to place anymore.
The globalization of agriculture lasted around 10,000 years or more after it first arose in the Fertile Crescent. By the beginning of the Common Era, the global spread of agriculture had reduced gathering and hunting peoples to a small and decreasing minority of humankind. During the common era, the beginning of human dominance over other life forms truly began. The major factor was the environmental transformation. Places, forests, and grasslands became cultivated fields and grazing lands. Human life, especially farming, involved more hard work than in many gathering and hunting societies. Wine and Beer also came about as both a blessing and a curse.
In all of their diversity, many village-based agricultural societies flourished well into the modern era, organizing themselves in kinship groups or lineages. This system provided the foundations to build a society with rules - to maintain order and settle arguments/fights without going to war. This was government without the formal apparatus. Chiefdoms emerged everywhere in the Pacific islands which had been colonized by the Polynesian peoples. Chiefs usually came from a senior lineage, tracing their descent to the first son of an imagined ancestor. They led important rituals and ceremonies, organized the community for warfare, directed its economic life, and sought to reserve eternal conflicts. The Agricultural Revolution transformed both the human journey and the evolution of life on the planet.
Nissa's Story
Nissa's story gives a great perspective on how the Paleolithic peoples might have been like. Nissa mentions that they are people who live and belong "in the bush." They are poor but they do their best to survive and meet their needs every day. Sometimes her father would bring home meat other times just honey. Nissa was always happy and grateful whenever she received food. She didn't like people who didn't share, no matter how little they had. She faced hardships when she lost both her husband and infant daughter; and she blamed God. From the way Nissa lived, I think that the Paleolithic peoples also had similar ways of living like Nissa did. Hunting, gathering, marriages, lovers, healing, and trying to survive were all a part of life. The Paleolithic peoples might not have been always wealthy in food, land, etc. but most of them shared and bonded with one another when they needed each other's help.
The Agricultural Revolution intertwined with the end of the last Ice Age which ended 11,000 years ago. The Ice Age led to the migration of Homo sapiens across the planets who then created new conditions that made agriculture grow. Gathering and hunting peoples in various resource-rich areas were able to settle down and establish their permanent villages. They didn't move from place to place anymore.
The globalization of agriculture lasted around 10,000 years or more after it first arose in the Fertile Crescent. By the beginning of the Common Era, the global spread of agriculture had reduced gathering and hunting peoples to a small and decreasing minority of humankind. During the common era, the beginning of human dominance over other life forms truly began. The major factor was the environmental transformation. Places, forests, and grasslands became cultivated fields and grazing lands. Human life, especially farming, involved more hard work than in many gathering and hunting societies. Wine and Beer also came about as both a blessing and a curse.
In all of their diversity, many village-based agricultural societies flourished well into the modern era, organizing themselves in kinship groups or lineages. This system provided the foundations to build a society with rules - to maintain order and settle arguments/fights without going to war. This was government without the formal apparatus. Chiefdoms emerged everywhere in the Pacific islands which had been colonized by the Polynesian peoples. Chiefs usually came from a senior lineage, tracing their descent to the first son of an imagined ancestor. They led important rituals and ceremonies, organized the community for warfare, directed its economic life, and sought to reserve eternal conflicts. The Agricultural Revolution transformed both the human journey and the evolution of life on the planet.
Nissa's Story
Nissa's story gives a great perspective on how the Paleolithic peoples might have been like. Nissa mentions that they are people who live and belong "in the bush." They are poor but they do their best to survive and meet their needs every day. Sometimes her father would bring home meat other times just honey. Nissa was always happy and grateful whenever she received food. She didn't like people who didn't share, no matter how little they had. She faced hardships when she lost both her husband and infant daughter; and she blamed God. From the way Nissa lived, I think that the Paleolithic peoples also had similar ways of living like Nissa did. Hunting, gathering, marriages, lovers, healing, and trying to survive were all a part of life. The Paleolithic peoples might not have been always wealthy in food, land, etc. but most of them shared and bonded with one another when they needed each other's help.
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)